Johanson's Reading-Writing Fall 2005 BLOG

URL: http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/abstract.html
摘要在一篇文件中佔有重要的地位是因為他們會讓讀者對文件的內容產生初步的概念，好讓讀者決定是否繼續閱讀以及告訴他們在文件中應該找尋些什麼。
有些摘要雖然只列出文件的內容目錄，但是最有用的摘要理應告訴讀者更多有關文件的內容大概。摘要應儘可能提出文件中一些定量和定性的資訊, 並且反映出它的推理。
一般典型來說，一個具有幫助性的摘要應用大約100-250 個字來回應這些問題：
● 為什麼您做了這個研究或計劃?
● 您做了什麼，和如何做?
● 您發現了什麼?
● 您的研究結果意味著什麼意義?
如果文章是有關於新方法或新設備，那最後二個問題應改變為：
● 這些新方法或新設備的好處跟優點是什麼?
● 它們執行的效果有多好?
以下是一些有關摘要的要點且必須牢記在心的:
● 摘要大部分應與標題一起閱讀，因此切記不需重覆或改變標題的意思。這樣您可能不用詳讀其餘的文章部分來了解它的內容，因此，讀者在閱讀過程中應使摘要能足夠地成為文章裡獨立的段落內容。
● 讀者們在閱讀時會希望作者把結論、目的、方法和主要的發現結果作一個簡單的概述。摘要中強調的各種重點應與讀者在文章中得到的重點相稱。
● 不要提到跟文章內容無關的摘要
● 避免使用I 或者 we，但儘可能選擇主動動詞代替被動動詞 (寧可它去測試研究，而不要被研究測試) 。
● 如有可能盡量避免商標名、首字母縮略詞、簡稱或標誌。因為您會需要解釋他們，以致佔用文章的空間。
● 使用文章中的關鍵詞。(因出版工作，摘要為了那些被用來把資料編入索引的文字而被"開發"－如此才有機會讓別人引用你的文章。)

由Margaret Procter協調員博士發表，多倫多大學。版權2005 年。版權所有。
English version
The Abstract
Printable PDF Version
Fair-Use Policy
Abstracts are important because they give a first impression of the document that follows, letting readers decide whether to continue reading and showing them what to look for if they do. Though some abstracts only list the contents of the document, the most useful abstracts tell the reader more. An abstract should represent as much as possible of the quantitative and qualitative information in the document, and also reflect its reasoning. Typically, an informative abstract answers these questions in about 100-250 words:
• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do, and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?
If the paper is about a new method or apparatus the last two questions might be changed to
• What are the advantages (of the method or apparatus)?
• How well does it work?
Here are some other points to keep in mind about abstracts:
• An abstract will nearly always be read along with the title, so do not repeat or rephrase the title. It will likely be read without the rest of the document, however, so make it complete enough to stand on its own.
• Your readers expect you to summarize your conclusions as well as your purpose, methods, and main findings. Emphasize the different points in proportion to the emphasis they receive in the body of the document.
• Do not refer in the abstract to information that is not in the document.
• Avoid using I or we, but choose active verbs instead of passive when possible (the study tested rather than it was tested by the study).
• Avoid if possible avoid trade names, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols. You would need to explain them, and that takes too much room.
• Use key words from the document. (For published work, the abstract is "mined" for the words used to index the material--thus making it more likely someone will cite your article.)
Written by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support, University of Toronto.
Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.
 

This comment has been removed by a blog administrator.
 

URL http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/spelling.html
b9308052 Lydia





拼寫
拼寫檢查程式可以檢查出某些種類的錯誤，但並非全部都可以查得出來。像是程式往往會跳過同音異義字(同樣的發音方式但拼法不同)，譬如site (地點)/ sigh t (視覺、景象)， there (那裡)/ their(他們) / they're (他們是)，和 its (它的)/ it's (它是)，諸如此類的詞。例如，大部份的拼寫檢查程式在檢查下述句子時，就算有那三項嚴重的拼寫錯誤也不發出通知：

Their looking for a new sight when the gopher can build it's home
(當地鼠可修造「它是」的家庭時「他們的」尋找新「景象」。)


英國和美國拼寫的聯合影響了加拿大學生在加拿大用法上提供了一個另外挑戰：加拿大人傾向於在某幾個字用標準英式的拼法如axe (軸、斧頭)和cheque (鈔票)，在其他字上仿效美國拼寫如connection (連接)、及tire(輪胎)，以及二者皆可如 programme / program (節目)， labour/ labor (勞方)， neighbour/ neighbor (鄰居) 。切記，在拼寫時很重要的就是於用法和規則形式上的一致。例如，不要把neighbour (鄰居的英式拼法)和labor (勞方的美式拼法)混著用。選定一個型式，然後就嚴格的遵行那個型式。解決混雜英式和美式拼寫困擾的最佳方式就是把有加拿大用法的字典隨時放在身邊。
正確地拼寫主要要做的事是練習及依常識活用參考資料，但有四個標準拼寫規則你不可不知。雖然每個規則都有例外，但如果你仔細地學習這些規則，即使沒有拼寫檢查程式，你仍能避免大部份常見的錯誤。


"ei" 和"ie"的拼寫

當聲音是長音的"e" (如feed的念法) ，除了位在 "c "之後，都要把 "i" 寫在 "e " 之前。位在 "c " 以後就要反轉拼寫為"ei"

例如：
一、 在其它字母之後
believe (相信) , yield (產生) , reprieve (緩刑)
二、 在c以後，
ceiling,(天花板) , perceive (察覺) , conceit (自負)

但這個規則只有在 "ei" 或 "ie" 的發音聽起來為 "ee" 如feet(腳)這個字時才有效。如果它發其他的音，即使"ei"不在 "c" 字母之後，仍應該寫 "ei"

例如：foreign (外國)，vein (靜脈)，freight (貨物)


雙子音的拼寫

在母音開頭之字尾前的結尾子音要重複成為雙字音，前提是要符合以下二個條件：單字的重音是在最後的音節，或其為單音節的單字，並且子音在單母音之後

例如：
drag (阻力)/ dragged (被扯拽的)
wet (濕)/ wetter (更濕)
occur (發生)/ occurred(發生)，occurring(發生)
refer (提到)/ referral(提及)，referring(提到)

在字尾之前以 "y" 結尾的拼寫
當字的結尾為子音 + "y" ,在加上字尾之前您通常應該將 "y" 改為 "i"

例如：
curly(捲曲) / curlier (更加捲曲的)
party (黨)/ parties (成員)
thirty(三十)/ thirties (三十)，thirtieth(第三十)

然而，如果詞尾已經從 "i" 開始,那就保留 "y" (除了在字尾"- ize "之前)

例如：
thirty (三十) / thirtyish
fry (油炸物) / frying (油煎)
agony (極度痛苦) / agonize (掙扎)
memory (記憶) / memorize (記住)
當結尾 "y" 在母音("a" "e" "i" "o" 或"u")之後，"y" 不改為"i"
例如：
journey (旅途) / journeying (遠航的)
trolley(臺車) / trolleys (臺車)



不發音的"e"

如果一個單字結尾是子音+不發音的"e" ，若單字的結尾+以母音開頭的字尾,就要去"e"，但如果是結尾+字音開頭的字尾，就得保留"e"。

engage (參與) 接 ing 就是 engaging--去e，但engage 接 ment就是engagement (訂婚)--保留e；以下以此類推

care (留心)/ caring(關心) / careful (慎重的)
fate (命運) / fatal (致命) / fateful (重大的)
scarce(缺乏) / scarcity(缺乏) / scarcely (幾乎沒有)


Spelling

Spell checkers will catch some kinds of errors, but not all. For example, they tend to miss homonyms -- words which are pronounced the same way but spelled differently, such as site/ sight, there/ their/ they're, and its/ it's. Most spell-checkers, for example, would report no error in the following sentence, despite the fact that there are three serious spelling mistakes:

Their looking for a new sight when the gopher can build it's home.
The joint influence of British and American spelling on Canadian usage has provided an additional challenge to Canadian students: Canadians tend to follow standard British spelling for certain words (axe, cheque), to follow American spelling for others (connection, tire), and to allow either for yet more (programme/ program, labour/ labor, neighbour/ neighbor). The important thing to remember is to be consistent in usage and to follow a regular pattern when you spell. Don't mix neighbour with labor, for example. Choose one or the other pattern, and follow it closely. The best way to avoid problems with mixed British and American spelling is to keep a dictionary handy that shows Canadian usage.

Although spelling correctly is largely a matter of practice and the common-sense use of reference materials, there are four standard spelling rules. Although each has exceptions, if you study these rules carefully, you will be able to avoid most common errors, even without a spell-checker.


Spelling words with "ei" and "ie"

When the sound is a long "e" (as in feed), write "i" before "e", except after "c". After "c" reverse the spelling ("ei"):

After other letters
believe, yield, reprieve
After c
ceiling, perceive, conceit
The problem with this rule is that it works only when "ei"/"ie" sounds like the "ee" in feet. If it has any other sound, you should write "ei" even after letters other than "c":

foreign, vein, freight


Spelling Words with Double Consonants

Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel if both of the following are true: the consonant ends a stressed syllable or a one-syllable word, and the consonant is preceded by a single vowel:

drag becomes dragged
wet becomes wetter
occur becomes occurred, occurring
refer becomes referral, referring


Spelling final "y" before a suffix

When a word ends in "y" preceded by a consonant, you should usually change the "y" to "i" before adding the suffix:

curly becomes curlier
party becomes parties
thirty becomes thirties, thirtieth
However, if the suffix already begins with "i", keep the "y" (except before the suffix "-ize"):

thirty becomes thirtyish
fry becomes frying
agony becomes agonize
memory becomes memorize
When the ending "y" is preceded by a vowel ("a" "e" "i" "o" or "u"), "y" does not change to "i":

journey becomes journeying
trolley becomes trolleys


Final Silent "e"

If a word ends in a consonant followed by a silent "e", drop the "e" before endings beginning with a vowel, but keep the "e" before endings beginning with a consonant:

engage becomes engaging but engagement
care becomes caring but careful
fate becomes fatal but fateful
scarce becomes scarcity but scarcely
 

B9310013 Eric

URL>>
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/applic.html
Specific Points about the Application Letter
1. Write a letter for each application, tailored for the specific situation. Even if the ad calls only for a résumé, send a letter anyway. The letter makes a first impression, and it can direct the reader to notice key points of the résumé.
2. Use standard letter format, with internal addresses (spell names correctly!) and salutations. Use specific names or at least position titles whenever possible (call the company or check its Website). Avoid the dated "Dear Sir and Madam." "To whom it may concern" is weak. You can use an "Attention" line or a "Subject" line instead of a salutation if you have to.
3. Most application letters for entry-level jobs are one page in length--a substantial page rather than a skimpy one.
4. Start strong and clear. For an advertised position, name the job and say where you saw the ad. For a speculative letter, name a specific function you can offer and relate it to something you know about the organization.
5. Use paragraph structure to lead your reader from one interpretive point to another. Refer to specific information in terms of examples for the points you're making, and mention that your résumé gives further evidence.
6. End strongly by requesting an interview. It is now standard to say that you will call soon to set a time. Phrases like "thank you for your time" are unnecessary.
Site created by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support,
and administered by Jerry Plotnick

關於寫申請書的重點
1. 寫每一封申請信，都有一個特定的狀況。既使廣告上說只需要履歷表，或是只需寄一封信。信件會被當做是第一印像，並且它可以讓讀者直接知道這封信的重點。
2. 使用標準信件格式, 以國內地址(請將名字拼正確!) 並且還有稱呼語。使用具體名字或是至少寫上有可能的職稱(打電話公司或上往查看它的網站)。避免寫上的"親愛的先生和夫人。" "敬啟者"是較不好的。如果必須要的話，您能使用重點線或附屬線代替致敬。
3. 多數為了一些工作的申請信件的長度大約是一頁左右的長度，內容充實的比起空乏的文章好的多了。
4. 開始清楚的說出重點。對於一個廣告的職位，說出這個工作並說出你在那看到這個廣告。對於一封非實用性的信件, 說出一些特定的功能或是一些你所知道關於這個組織的一些事情。
5. 使用段結構帶領你的讀者從一個觀點到另一個觀點。提出具體資訊或根據一些例子來配合你所提出的觀點，和提出一些和你的履歷有相關的說明。
6. 在最後，強烈的請求給予面試。也就是說你很快將會打來並約好時間。像是"感謝你"等詞語是多餘的。
網站由Margaret Procter博士協助整合寫作和由傑瑞・Plotnick管理
 

URL:
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/bkrev.html
書或文章的一個分析或評論不是主要總結; 相反, 它評論和評估工作根據具體問題和理論關心在路線。(幫助削尖您的分析讀書技能, 參見我們的文件在重要讀書。)文學回顧彙集一套的這樣評論對地圖在位置之外的當前的範圍在題目; 然後作家能定義他們自己的位置在本文的剩餘。保留問題像這些在頭腦如同您讀, 做筆記, 和寫回顧。
1. 什麼是書或文章的具體題目? 它似乎什麼整體目的有? 為什麼讀者它被寫? (序言、承認、參考書目和索引可能是有用的在回答這些問題。不要俯視關於作者的背景的事實和書的創作和出版物的情況。)
2. 作者陳述一份明確論文嗎? 他或她引人注目地有一個軸研嗎? 什麼是理論假定? 他們明確地被談論嗎? (再, 尋找聲明在序言, 等和跟隨他們在工作的剩餘。)
3. 工作對您的路線整體題目確切地貢獻什麼? 什麼一般問題和與概念嚙合在您的學科和路線它?
4. 工作提出什麼樣的材料(即主要文件或次要物質, 文藝分析、個人觀察, 定量資料, 自傳或歷史帳戶)?
5. 這材料怎麼被使用展示和爭論論文? (並且表明工作的整體結構, 您的回顧能引述或總結具體段落顯示作者的介紹的特徵, 包括寫作風格和口氣。)
6. 有是供選擇的方式爭論從同樣材料嗎? 作者顯示了悟他們嗎? 在什麼方面作者同意或不同意?
7. 為進一步討論工作提出什麼理論問題和題目?
8. 什麼是您自己的反應和被考慮的看法看待工作?
瀏覽在出版博學書評得到方式回顧作用的感覺在智力演講。看學報在您的學科或一般出版物裡譬如 多倫多大學季度, 書倫敦回顧, 或 書紐約回顧。
一些回顧總結書的內容和然後評估它; 其他人集成這些作用, 評論書和使用總結只給出例子。選擇似乎最適當根據您的教授的方向的方法。
保留您的焦點, 提醒自己, 您的任務主要將談論它的題目的書的治療, 不是題目。您的關鍵句子應該因此認為"這本書展示... 作者爭論" 而不是"這發生了... 這是實際情形。"
由Margaret Procter, 協調員博士寫, 寫支持, 多倫多大學。
版權2005 年。版權所有。
An analytic or critical review of a book or article is not primarily a summary; rather, it comments on and evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course. (To help sharpen your analytical reading skills, see our file on Critical Reading.) The literature review puts together a set of such commentaries to map out the current range of positions on a topic; then the writer can define his or her own position in the rest of the paper. Keep questions like these in mind as you read, make notes, and write the review.
1. What is the specific topic of the book or article? What overall purpose does it seem to have? For what readership is it written? (The preface, acknowledgements, bibliography and index can be helpful in answering these questions. Don't overlook facts about the author's background and the circumstances of the book's creation and publication.)
2. Does the author state an explicit thesis? Does he or she noticeably have an axe to grind? What are the theoretical assumptions? Are they discussed explicitly? (Again, look for statements in the preface, etc. and follow them up in the rest of the work.)
3. What exactly does the work contribute to the overall topic of your course? What general problems and concepts in your discipline and course does it engage with?
4. What kinds of material does the work present (e.g. primary documents or secondary material, literary analysis, personal observation, quantitative data, biographical or historical accounts)?
5. How is this material used to demonstrate and argue the thesis? (As well as indicating the overall structure of the work, your review could quote or summarize specific passages to show the characteristics of the author's presentation, including writing style and tone.)
6. Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material? Does the author show awareness of them? In what respects does the author agree or disagree?
7. What theoretical issues and topics for further discussion does the work raise?
8. What are your own reactions and considered opinions regarding the work?
Browse in published scholarly book reviews to get a sense of the ways reviews function in intellectual discourse. Look at journals in your discipline or general publications such as University of Toronto Quarterly, London Review of Books, or New York Review of Books.
Some reviews summarize the book's content and then evaluate it; others integrate these functions, commenting on the book and using summary only to give examples. Choose the method that seems most suitable according to your professor's directions.
To keep your focus, remind yourself that your assignment is primarily to discuss the book's treatment of its topic, not the topic itself. Your key sentences should therefore say "This book shows...the author argues" rather than "This happened...this is the case."

Written by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support, University of Toronto.
Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.
 

B9308032 Rod
URL:
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/bkrev.html
書或文章的一個分析或評論不是主要總結; 相反, 它評論和評估工作根據具體問題和理論關心在路線。(幫助削尖您的分析讀書技能, 參見我們的文件在重要讀書。)文學回顧彙集一套的這樣評論對地圖在位置之外的當前的範圍在題目; 然後作家能定義他們自己的位置在本文的剩餘。保留問題像這些在頭腦如同您讀, 做筆記, 和寫回顧。
1. 什麼是書或文章的具體題目? 它似乎什麼整體目的有? 為什麼讀者它被寫? (序言、承認、參考書目和索引可能是有用的在回答這些問題。不要俯視關於作者的背景的事實和書的創作和出版物的情況。)
2. 作者陳述一份明確論文嗎? 他或她引人注目地有一個軸研嗎? 什麼是理論假定? 他們明確地被談論嗎? (再, 尋找聲明在序言, 等和跟隨他們在工作的剩餘。)
3. 工作對您的路線整體題目確切地貢獻什麼? 什麼一般問題和與概念嚙合在您的學科和路線它?
4. 工作提出什麼樣的材料(即主要文件或次要物質, 文藝分析、個人觀察, 定量資料, 自傳或歷史帳戶)?
5. 這材料怎麼被使用展示和爭論論文? (並且表明工作的整體結構, 您的回顧能引述或總結具體段落顯示作者的介紹的特徵, 包括寫作風格和口氣。)
6. 有是供選擇的方式爭論從同樣材料嗎? 作者顯示了悟他們嗎? 在什麼方面作者同意或不同意?
7. 為進一步討論工作提出什麼理論問題和題目?
8. 什麼是您自己的反應和被考慮的看法看待工作?
瀏覽在出版博學書評得到方式回顧作用的感覺在智力演講。看學報在您的學科或一般出版物裡譬如 多倫多大學季度, 書倫敦回顧, 或 書紐約回顧。
一些回顧總結書的內容和然後評估它; 其他人集成這些作用, 評論書和使用總結只給出例子。選擇似乎最適當根據您的教授的方向的方法。
保留您的焦點, 提醒自己, 您的任務主要將談論它的題目的書的治療, 不是題目。您的關鍵句子應該因此認為"這本書展示... 作者爭論" 而不是"這發生了... 這是實際情形。"
由Margaret Procter, 協調員博士寫, 寫支持, 多倫多大學。
版權2005 年。版權所有。
An analytic or critical review of a book or article is not primarily a summary; rather, it comments on and evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course. (To help sharpen your analytical reading skills, see our file on Critical Reading.) The literature review puts together a set of such commentaries to map out the current range of positions on a topic; then the writer can define his or her own position in the rest of the paper. Keep questions like these in mind as you read, make notes, and write the review.
1. What is the specific topic of the book or article? What overall purpose does it seem to have? For what readership is it written? (The preface, acknowledgements, bibliography and index can be helpful in answering these questions. Don't overlook facts about the author's background and the circumstances of the book's creation and publication.)
2. Does the author state an explicit thesis? Does he or she noticeably have an axe to grind? What are the theoretical assumptions? Are they discussed explicitly? (Again, look for statements in the preface, etc. and follow them up in the rest of the work.)
3. What exactly does the work contribute to the overall topic of your course? What general problems and concepts in your discipline and course does it engage with?
4. What kinds of material does the work present (e.g. primary documents or secondary material, literary analysis, personal observation, quantitative data, biographical or historical accounts)?
5. How is this material used to demonstrate and argue the thesis? (As well as indicating the overall structure of the work, your review could quote or summarize specific passages to show the characteristics of the author's presentation, including writing style and tone.)
6. Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material? Does the author show awareness of them? In what respects does the author agree or disagree?
7. What theoretical issues and topics for further discussion does the work raise?
8. What are your own reactions and considered opinions regarding the work?
Browse in published scholarly book reviews to get a sense of the ways reviews function in intellectual discourse. Look at journals in your discipline or general publications such as University of Toronto Quarterly, London Review of Books, or New York Review of Books.
Some reviews summarize the book's content and then evaluate it; others integrate these functions, commenting on the book and using summary only to give examples. Choose the method that seems most suitable according to your professor's directions.
To keep your focus, remind yourself that your assignment is primarily to discuss the book's treatment of its topic, not the topic itself. Your key sentences should therefore say "This book shows...the author argues" rather than "This happened...this is the case."

Written by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support, University of Toronto.
Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.
 

B9308012 Elain提到...
URL>>
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/essay.html
Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing
1、雜文觀察在題目中不是足夠做一篇成功的學術雜文。雜文應該有論據。它應該回答問題或幾個相關問題(參見2 下面) 。它應該設法證明某事-- 開發一份唯一"論文" 或短套緊密地相關的點-- 由辯解並且證明,您的論據介入 特別是包括恰當的例子和證實的引證從所有特殊文本或來源。收集這樣的證明在頭腦裡通常需要一些再讀文本或來源以問題或臨時論文。
2、當像通常案件-- 一個被分配的題目不提供您現成論文, 您的第一努力儘可能應該以您將尋求回答在您的雜文的question(s)一樣確切地公式化。其次, 藉由認為, 讀, 和摘記發展一個臨時論文或假說。不要貿然地對第一個做答復。追求它, 但測試它-- 清楚自己問什麼也許是前述反對它-- 並且準備好校正或合格它如同您的工作進展。(一個暗示可能的標題你有時發現與早期的罐頭服務相似。)
3、任何一個特殊論據也許很好被提出, 但雜文組織許多方式它用怎麼開始,提出您的論據顯現出和末端應該被設計清楚地和令人信服。(您發現您的論據的部份的命令它對讀者提出很少是一個有效的指令。)
4、組成雜文成功的方法是各種各樣的, 但好作家一些習慣是幾乎不變的:
.他們開始提早書寫, 在他們的認知裡以前他們是"準備" 寫, 因為他們使用不簡單地寫抄錄什麼作為探險和發現手段。
.他們不設法從開始給末端寫一篇雜文, 而是寧可寫什麼似乎最準備好被寫, 既使他們不是肯定的是否將適合。
.儘管那麼自由地寫, 他們在頭腦保留雜文的整體目的和組織, 修正他們當起稿進行。有點像"概述" 經常有意識地演變, 在驅散之外雖然它也許從未採取任何一個書面形式, 概略的對自己提示。
.他們廣泛地校正。而不是寫一份唯一草稿和然後僅僅編輯它的句子, 他們參與整體雜文和草稿的重寫-- 重新整理它的更大的零件序列, 他們構成其間考慮到增加和刪除部分。這樣的修正經常介入，使雜文在旁邊幾天, 當他們回到它允許頭腦間接地運作或下意識地同時和成為可能更加客觀地看工作在進步。
.一旦他們有一份相當完全的組織完善的草稿, 他們校正句子, 特別注意轉折-- 那是必然的檢查, 在句子之內讀者能跟隨想法序列, 從句子到句子, 和從段落到段落。其它的在校正句子重要考慮是措詞(詞的精確性和適合性) 並且節省(少數詞沒有清楚的表示使充分的想法損失) 。最後,他們校對了最後的拷貝。
1.Miscellaneous observations on a topic are not enough to make an accomplished academic essay. An essay should have an argument. It should answer a question or a few related questions (see 2 below). It should try to prove something--develop a single "thesis" or a short set of closely related points--by reasoning and evidence, especially including apt examples and confirming citations from any particular text or sources your argument involves. Gathering such evidence normally entails some rereading of the text or sources with a question or provisional thesis in mind.

2.When--as is usually the case--an assigned topic does not provide you with a thesis ready-made, your first effort should be to formulate as exactly as possible the question(s) you will seek to answer in your essay. Next, develop by thinking, reading, and jotting a provisional thesis or hypothesis. Don't become prematurely committed to this first answer. Pursue it, but test it--even to the point of consciously asking yourself what might be said against it--and be ready to revise or qualify it as your work progresses. (Sometimes a suggestive possible title one discovers early can serve in the same way.)

3.There are many ways in which any particular argument may be well presented, but an essay's organization--how it begins, develops, and ends--should be designed to present your argument clearly and persuasively. (The order in which you discovered the parts of your argument is seldom an effective order for presenting it to a reader.)

4.Successful methods of composing an essay are various, but some practices of good writers are almost invariable:

。They start writing early, even before they think they are "ready" to write, because they use writing not simply to transcribe what they have already discovered but as a means of exploration and discovery.
。They don't try to write an essay from beginning to end, but rather write what seems readiest to be written, even if they're not sure whether or how it will fit in.
。Despite writing so freely, they keep the essay's overall purpose and organization in mind, amending them as drafting proceeds.
。Something like an "outline" constantly and consciously evolves, although it may never take any written form beyond scattered, sketchy reminders to oneself.
。They revise extensively. Rather than writing a single draft and then merely editing its sentences one by one, they attend to the whole essay and draft and redraft--rearranging the sequence of its larger parts, adding and deleting sections to take account of what they discover in the course of composition. Such revision often involves putting the essay aside for a few days, allowing the mind to work indirectly or subconsciously in the meantime and making it possible to see the work-in-progress more objectively when they return to it.
。Once they have a fairly complete and well-organized draft, they revise sentences, with special attention to transitions--that is, checking to be sure that a reader will be able to follow the sequences of ideas within sentences, from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph. Two other important considerations in revising sentences are diction (exactness and aptness of words) and economy (the fewest words without loss of clear expression and full thought). Lastly, they proofread the final copy.
 

B9308034提到…
URL>> http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/bkrev.html

書評或文章評論: 一般指導方針
一本書或一篇文章的一個分析或評論並不是主要總結; 相反, 它的評論依據和評估工作中的特定內容及和課程有關的理論。(幫助你在分析閱讀技巧上變得敏銳, 參考我們評論的閱讀文件。) 文學評論彙集一套像是安排一個標題位置的流通範圍; 然後作家能定義他們在文章中的所屬位置。若你在閱讀,做筆記,和寫評論，保留這些問題在心中。

１．什麼是書或文章的具體題目? 它似乎有什麼整體目的? 為什麼是讀者會寫? (序言、回應、參考書目和索引可能是在這些問題中有用的回答。別忽視了關於作者背景和書的創作及出版物情況的事實。)

2.作者有陳述一份明確的論文嗎? 他或她有注意一個軸研嗎? 什麼是理論假定? 他們有明確地談論嗎? (還有, 尋找在序言的聲明…等，並堅持在他們的工作上完成。)
3.有什麼工作正是貢獻的整體主題在你的路程? 有什麼一般問題與概念嚙合在你的範圍和路程?

4.什麼是現今工作的必需性質(例如…主要文件或次要材料, 文學分析、個人觀察, 定量資料, 自傳或歷史帳戶)?
5.這資料怎麼被使用論證和爭論論文? (並且表明工作的整體結構, 俅的評論能引述或總結特定段落來顯示作者表現出的特徵, 包括寫作風格和口氣。)

6.作者表達了他們的所知? 在什麼方面作者同意或不同意?

7.為進一步討論工作提出什麼理論問題和題目?
8.什麼是關於工作而你自己的反應和考慮的看法?
瀏覽那些有出版的學術性書籍評論，像在智力演講中得到一些觀念的方法。看一些通報在你的學科或一般出版物裡譬如多倫多大學季刊, 倫敦書評論, 或紐約書的評論。

一些評論總結了書的內容然後評估它; 其他人集成這些功能, 評論書和使用 總結只給出幾個例子。選擇似乎多數的方法， 適當根據你教授的說明。


保留您的重點, 提醒自己, 你的任務主要是 談論那書的題目的處理, 而不是題目本身。
你的關鍵句子應該因而認為"這本書展表示了... 作者爭論"而不是" 這發生了... 這是實際情形。

" 由Margaret Procter, 協調員博士所寫, 多倫多大學支持。版權2005 年　版權所有。

An analytic or critical review of a book or

article is not primarily a summary; rather, it comments on and

evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical

concerns in a course. (To help sharpen your analytical reading skills,

see our file on Critical Reading.) The literature review puts together a

set of such commentaries to map out the current range of positions on

a topic; then the writer can define his or her own position in the rest of

the paper. Keep questions like these in mind as you read, make notes,

and write the review.

1.What is the specific topic of the book or article? What overall purpose

does it seem to have? For what readership is it written? (The preface,

acknowledgements, bibliography and index can be helpful in

answering these questions. Don't overlook facts about the author's

background and the circumstances of the book's creation and

publication.)
2.Does the author state an explicit thesis? Does he or she noticeably

have an axe to grind? What are the theoretical assumptions? Are they

discussed explicitly? (Again, look for statements in the preface, etc.

and follow them up in the rest of the work.)
3.What exactly does the work contribute to the overall topic of your

course? What general problems and concepts in your discipline and

course does it engage with?
4.What kinds of material does the work present (e.g. primary documents

or secondary material, literary analysis, personal observation,

quantitative data, biographical or historical accounts)?
5.How is this material used to demonstrate and argue the thesis? (As well

as indicating the overall structure of the work, your review could quote

or summarize specific passages to show the characteristics of the

author's presentation, including writing style and tone.)
6.Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material? Does the

author show awareness of them? In what respects does the author

agree or disagree?
7.What theoretical issues and topics for further discussion does the work

raise?
8.What are your own reactions and considered opinions regarding the

work?
Browse in published scholarly book reviews to get a sense of the ways

reviews function in intellectual discourse. Look at journals in your

discipline or general publications such as University of Toronto

Quarterly, London Review of Books, or New York Review of Books.

Some reviews summarize the book's content and then evaluate it;

others integrate these functions, commenting on the book and using

summary only to give examples. Choose the method that seems most

suitable according to your professor's directions.

To keep your focus, remind yourself that your assignment is primarily

to discuss the book's treatment of its topic, not the topic itself. Your

key sentences should therefore say "This book shows...the author

argues" rather than "This happened...this is the case."



Written by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support,

University of Toronto.
Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.
 

何時我該釋義，且何時我該作總結？
釋義方法是在你們母語裡表示其他人的想法；而總結用來篩選出其他人的想法中最重要的部分。
釋義和摘要是在寫的散文過程中的不可缺少的工具，因為他們允許你包容其他人的想法。且沒有用摘要亂七八糟地堆滿你的散文。 他們幫助你掌控你的散文。 考慮倚賴兩件工具中的任一件，當來自你的一個來源的一種想法對你的散文是重要的時，但是詞語不是。 你應該被在透過空間的考慮使用哪件工具的你的選擇過程中引導。 但是最重要的是，考慮來自你的來源的細節中的多少對你的辯論相關。 你的全部讀者需要知道什麼是梗概以及總結。
最後，確信不關於釋義或者摘要倚賴得太嚴重。 你的想法是最什麼事情。 允許你自己空間發展那些想法。
我該如何釋義？
你釋義無論何時，記得這些2 個點︰
1. 你必須提供參考。
2. 釋義必須完全用你自己的單詞。你必須將各處僅僅以短語代替的，你也必須完全改變句子架構。
為已經被很好地表示的一種想法找到新話可能是困難的。 下列策略將使釋義的工作容易得多︰
1. 當你階段在佔用筆記時， 並且你偶然發現可能對你的散文有用的一條通路， 不複製逐字的通路除非你認為你將想要引用它。
2. 如果你認為你將想要釋義文章，只做作者的基本的點的筆記。 你甚至不需要使用充分的句子。
3. 在你的筆記裡，你已經應該把原物的語言翻譯成你自己的單詞。 什麼事情是你捕獲這個最初想法。
4. 確認原先的文章的頁數，以便你能做更進一步適當的參考。
當它變成寫文章的時間時，倚賴你的筆記而不是在作者的工作上。 你將發現避免從原先的出處借是較簡單的，因此你最近才不會看見相同的文章。
跟隨這個單一順序︰
1.從你的筆記到充分的句子轉變想法。
2.提供參考。
3.回到你的釋義是準確的，而且你己經用你自已的語言全是好了!
※由傑理Plotnick寫，主管，大學學院寫作工場，多倫多大學。
版權2005。 版權所有。
※URL NAME>>> http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/paraphrase.html
When should I paraphrase, and when should I summarize?
To paraphrase means to express someone else's ideas in your own language. To summarize means to distill only the most essential points of someone else's work.
Paraphrase and summary are indispensable tools in essay writing because they allow you to include other people's ideas without cluttering up your essay with quotations. They help you take greater control of your essay. Consider relying on either tool when an idea from one of your sources is important to your essay but the wording is not. You should be guided in your choice of which tool to use by considerations of space. But above all, think about how much of the detail from your source is relevant to your argument. If all your reader needs to know is the bare bones, then summarize.
Ultimately, be sure not to rely too heavily on either paraphrase or summary. Your ideas are what matter most. Allow yourself the space to develop those ideas.

How do I paraphrase?
Whenever you paraphrase, remember these two points:
2. You must provide a reference.
3. The paraphrase must be entirely in your own words. You must do more than merely substitute phrases here and there. You must also completely alter the sentence structure.
It can be difficult to find new words for an idea that is already well expressed. The following strategy will make the job of paraphrasing a lot easier:
5. When you are at the note-taking stage, and you come across a passage that may be useful for your essay, do not copy the passage verbatim unless you think you will want to quote it.
6. If you think you will want to paraphrase the passage, make a note only of the author's basic point. You don't even need to use full sentences.
7. In your note, you should already be translating the language of the original into your own words. What matters is that you capture the original idea.
8. Make sure to include the page number of the original passage so that you can make a proper reference later on.
When it comes time to write the paper, rely on your notes rather than on the author's work. You will find it much easier to avoid borrowing from the original passage because you will not have recently seen it. Follow this simple sequence:
1. Convert the ideas from your notes into full sentences.
2. Provide a reference.
3. Go back to the original to ensure that your paraphrase is accurate and you have truly said things in your own words.
※Written by Jerry Plotnick, Director, University College Writing Workshop, University of Toronto. Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.
※URL NAME>>> http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/paraphrase.html
 

URL>>http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/organizing.html
什麼是反向概述?
當您完成您的草稿，您認為您文章的組織架構可以更完善，這時，可以考慮使用反向概述。反向概述的創造很簡單。閱讀您的文章，當您提出新觀點時，將它總結在旁邊。如果文章的組織架構完善，每一個段落應該會有一個觀點；使您在閱讀時，形成有條理的連貫論述。然而，也許你會發現，有些觀點被重覆出現在文章的各個地方，有些觀點也許不恰當，有些甚至沒有出現的必要。如果你認為這些觀點是改善文章的必要成分，你就必須將它創造出來。使用這個新要點修改句子，對您的文章具有修正的作用；將重複出現在文章好幾個部份的相同觀點合併，消除重複並使文章變得流利順暢是必要的。在完成初稿後，藉由反向概述，您可以有所善，並且更仔細地計劃文章。修正的過程和方法應該和文章原本的體裁及組織架構ㄧ樣。
When you have completed your first draft, and you think your paper can be better organized, consider using a reverse outline. Reverse outlines are simple to create. Just read through your essay, and every time you make a new point, summarize it in the margin. If the essay is reasonably well-organized, you should have one point in the margin for each paragraph, and your points read out in order should form a coherent argument. You might, however, discover that some of your points are repeated at various places in your essay. Other points may be out of place, and still other key points may not appear at all. Think of all these points as the ingredients of an improved outline which you now must create. Use this new outline to cut and paste the sentences into a revised version of your essay, consolidating points that appear in several parts of your essay while eliminating repetition and creating smooth transitions where necessary.
You can improve even the most carefully planned essay by creating a reverse outline after completing your first draft. The process of revision should be as much about organization as it is about style.
 

1. The Dog In The Manger

Once a dog was taking a nap in the manger of an ox. It was full of hay. But soon the ox came back from his work to the manger. He wanted to eat his own hay. Then the dog awoke, stood up and barked at the ox. The ox said to the dog, “Do you want to eat this hay, too?”
“Of course not,” said the dog.

“Then, go away and let me eat my own hay.”

“Oh, no. You go away and let me sleep.”

“What a selfish dog! He will neither eat the hay himself, nor let me eat it !” said the ox to himself.
Copyright，花崗國中：張獻敏整理2003/07/09
Copyright 2003. All rights reserved


URL NAME>>> http://www.hgjh.hlc.edu.tw/assist1/assist/spc/culver/easyengstory.htm
1.牛槽裡的狗
　有一天一隻狗正在牛的馬槽中小睡一下。馬槽裡充滿了乾草。很快的牛工作完，並回到馬槽。牛想要吃他自己的乾草。然後將狗喚醒，這時，狗站起來而且對牛叫。牛對狗說，”你想要也吃這乾草嗎？”
”當然不”，狗說。
”然後，走開而且讓我吃我自己的乾草。”
”哦!不!是你走開而且讓我睡覺。”
”真是自私的狗啊！他既非要吃乾草，也不讓我吃它！”牛自顧自的說著。
Copyright，花崗國中：張獻敏整理2003/07/09, 版權所有
 

B9308006

URL>>
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/applic.html
應付新詞
最好不要中斷您的閱讀過程馬上用字典查每個艱難的字。標記不熟悉的詞(用鉛筆寫的，不要用任何永久性的東西), 但嘗試這些策略去"猜測" 在意思如同您去。您將獲取一些真正的理解對如何使用這些字而不是冗長的字彙表和一本翻爛了的字典。(您最終將證實您的猜測與字典。)
1.第一, 試探 它。使用簡單的聲音基礎教學法嘗試兩三個方式唸出單字-。當您聽見它時也許可認出單字。
2.其次, 審查 結構。尋找熟悉的詞零件, 和看您是否能說出字首和字尾字根的意思。
3.然後看 上下文。用這個方式猜測單字的意思，看它如何被使用在句子。您可以發現一個不拘形式的字義在某近處。或您可能將看到意思反映在下個想法, 或能說出意思段落順便說一句繼續。
4.最後只要檢查 字典。在使用上述步驟後，如果您還是無法瞭解您正在閱讀什麼, 暫停然後去查字典或課本的字彙表。當您發現您的詞, 撇取整體詞條和找最相關的意思。也要檢查發音。
5.然後加強您的理解藉由 寫， 寫一個能用的簡要定義或同義詞在您的讀書邊際—用鉛筆, 因為您總不會需要它在那裡。
您應該並且使用字典作為最後的步驟既使您能完全猜測的很好，使您繼續閱讀。當您停止您在讀的部分而做筆記時, 檢查您所不完全瞭解的所有詞的。徹底地讀字典-- 尋找詞的衍生和結構的分析和以它用法的例句。然後做少量的筆記。
一個系統為加強新詞彙單字
當您學會了一個新詞, 作為一個步驟，做它一部分的詞您的活躍商店。表單幫助您複習; 筆記卡片是更好讓您繼續加深重要單字的運用。這個方法保留單字在文章裡。它並且拜訪視域和聽力以便您馬上以各種各樣的方式學會。繼續返回到您的卡片和重覆步驟，直到您感到舒適時，就把它當作最後一次。(您不須要每個單字都做這些步驟。密集地選擇一些工作。)
•根據字典發音指南大聲說出單字。(如果需要的話，找出發音音調，標誌字典的前線或後面。)
•寫下 單字和標記它展示它的內在結構(根詞+ 字首或字尾) 。繼續 大聲地 說它(或至少在您的頭腦裡) 。
•在卡片的另一邊, 寫下 一個簡要的定義。然後抄下您使用那個單字的句子，當您一邊寫，一邊大聲的唸出它。之後您可能增加例句從其它閱讀裡。
•定期地讀卡片。最終設法使用單字寫出您自己的句子。當您能這麼做而沒有看卡片, 您就成功了!
進一步的資源為建造字彙技能
最好的方式增加和加深您的一般詞彙，就是花時間閱讀: 報紙或普遍的雜誌都可以, 只要您讀以活躍興趣在詞上您發現得那裡。作為您的"被動" 詞彙量從讀書增量,實際上您將舒適地開始使用新的單字在講話或寫作。實際上, 您可能沒有故意地使用他們; 您不過發現他們在您的運用當您需要他們的時候。如果他們建立通過正確的理解, 他們屬於您。
這裡有一些書和報紙專欄把焦點集中在單字上。大多數列印的材料在在Robarts 或 大學圖書館可看到, 而一些是可以在書店買到的。這些項目有的是特別地關於增長的字彙的技能; 其他的就只是了他們自己的緣故。不要忽略專欄和比賽: 既使您一開始無法與專家相比, 您可以享受其它人在字上獲得樂趣的景象--且氣氛是可以蔓延的。
在T. Bookstore U.
許多書許諾增加您的詞彙量在十天或十容易的步。這些部分是比較實際可行的;他們本身有許多好的閱讀。
•Gyles Brandreth 。 詞書。
•理查・Lederer 。 語言、瘋狂的語言, 等奇蹟。
•羅伯特・MacNeill 。 Wordstruck。
•普林斯頓回顧。 詞聰明。
•劉易斯・托馬斯。 和Cetera。
在圖書館
許多上述的書和其他的珍貴的珍藏品可能在大學圖書館裡發現。看這些架子並尋找你感興趣的。
•看LB2395 架子 為書提建議在詞彙量技能。
•看PE 1075架子 為書關於語言的歷史。
在普遍的新聞事業方面
熱烈的討論特殊字的用途是編者和一個週期性題目為專欄作的文學支柱。這裡有一些定期的專欄展示專門研究字的使用—常常是字彙裡好笑且不合邏輯的方面。
•"措辭力量," 一個規則特點在 讀者的文摘裡。
•威廉Safire 的專欄在 紐約時代週刊雜誌。
•Warren 寬容專欄在星期六地球和郵件的 社論專欄。
•Lew Gloin 的專欄在星期六 多倫多星。
•BBC 無線電節目"我的詞," 運載了由CJRT-FM (90.1) 在星期天在4:30 。
在網路上
您將大量的在網路上發現比賽, 問題和回答, 論據、參考書、每日一句, 和文章。這裡有幾個地方開始:
•理查・Lederer, Verbivore: 文章, 鏈接
•Merriam 韋伯斯特的每日一句
•詞為詞，異常的詞, 鏈接為語言戀人

Dealing with New Words
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A System for Reinforcing New Vocabulary Words | Further Resources for Building Vocabulary Skills
It's best not to interrupt your reading process to look up every hard word right away in the dictionary. Mark unfamiliar words (with a penciled mark, not with anything permanent), but try these tactics for making an "educated guess" at the meaning as you go. You'll acquire some real understanding of how words are used rather than just long vocabulary lists and a dog-eared dictionary. (Eventually you will confirm your guesses with a dictionary.)

First, SOUND it out. Use simple phonics to attempt saying the word--try a couple of ways. You might recognize the word when you hear it.
Next, examine the STRUCTURE. Look for familiar word parts, and see if you can tell how the prefixes and suffixes shape the root meaning.
Then look at the CONTEXT. Guess at the word's meaning from the way it is used in the sentence. You may find that an informal definition is worked in somewhere near. Or maybe you will see the meaning reflected in the next idea, or just be able to tell the meaning by the way the passage continues.
Only then, check the DICTIONARY. If you can't understand what you're reading after using the above steps, pause and turn to the dictionary or the textbook's glossary list. When you find your word, skim through the whole entry and find the most relevant meaning. Check the pronunciation too.
Then reinforce your understanding by WRITING a usable brief definition or synonym in the margin of your reading--in pencil, because you won't always need it there.
You should also use the dictionary as a final step even if you have been able to guess well enough to keep going in your reading. When you stop after a section of reading to make notes, check your understanding of any words that aren't yet crystal-clear. Read the dictionary entry thoroughly--look for analysis of the word's derivation and structure and for examples of its usage. Then make a marginal note.

A System for Reinforcing New Vocabulary Words
When you have learned a new word, take steps to make it part of your active store of words. A list helps you review; note cards are even better to let you keep deepening your command of important words. This method keeps the words in context. It also calls on both sight and hearing so that you learn in various ways at once. Keep returning to your cards and repeat the steps until you feel comfortable doing the last one. (You won't do this for all your new words. Choose a few to work on intensively.)

Say the word out loud according to the dictionary pronunciation guide. (Look up the key to pronunciation symbols at the front or back of the dictionary if necessary.)
Write down the word and mark it up to show its inner structure (root word + prefixes or suffixes). Keep saying it over aloud (or at least in your head).
On the other side of the card, write down a brief definition. Then copy out the sentence where you saw the word used -- and say it aloud as you write. You will probably find sentences from other readings to add later.
Read over the card periodically. Eventually try writing a sentence of your own using the word. When you can do this without even looking at the card, you've arrived!
Further Resources for Building Vocabulary Skills
The best way to increase and deepen your general vocabulary is to spend time reading: a newspaper or popular magazine will do, as long as you read with an active interest in the words that you find there. As your "passive" vocabulary from reading increases, you will begin to be comfortable actually using new words in speech or writing. In fact, you may not need to use them deliberately; you will simply find them in your command when you need them. If they're established through a true understanding, they belong to you.


Here are some books and newspaper columns that concentrate on words. Most of the printed material is available at Robarts or college libraries, and some of it can be bought at the Bookstore. Some of these items are specifically about skills for increasing vocabulary; others are just about words for their own sake. Don't ignore the columns and games: even if you can't at first compete with the experts, you can enjoy the spectacle of other people having fun with words -- and the atmosphere can be contagious.

At U. of T. Bookstore
Many books promise to increase your vocabulary in ten days or ten easy steps. These ones are more realistic; many are good reading in themselves.

Gyles Brandreth. The Word Book.
Richard Lederer. The Miracle of Language, Crazy Language,etc.
Robert MacNeill. Wordstruck.
Princeton Review. Word Smart.
Lewis Thomas. Et Cetera.
At Libraries
Many of the above books and a treasure-trove of others can be found in university libraries. Look on these shelves and find what interests you.


See the LB 2395 shelves for books giving advice on vocabulary skills.
See the PE 1075 shelves for books about the history of the language.
In Popular Journalism
Heated discussions of particular word uses are a mainstay of letters to the editor and a recurrent topic for columnists. There are also a number of regular columns and shows that specialize in word uses -- often the amusingly illogical aspects of vocabulary.

"Word Power," a regular feature in Reader's Digest.
William Safire's column in the New York Times Magazine.
Warren Clement's column on the editorial page of the Saturday Globe and Mail.
Lew Gloin's column in the Saturday Toronto Star.
The BBC radio program "My Word," carried by CJRT-FM (90.1) on Sundays at 4:30.
On the Web
You'll find games, questions-and-and-answers, arguments, reference works, words-of-the-day, and articles galore on the Web. Here are a few places to start:

Richard Lederer, Verbivore: articles, links
Merriam-Webster's Word of the Day
Word for Word: unusual words, links for language lovers
 

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URL>>
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/physguide.html

注意正式和非正式風格上兩者之間的不同

在這個這課程中，你會在不同的情境下使用這兩類型的風格，而且無庸至疑地，你將會在未來的寫作中使用到這兩種類型，這裡回顧兩者不同的特性。在任何部份上的使用要保持你的風格一致，並使你的寫作有趣又不失去它的莊重。

學術上：清楚地說明字，以專業的名詞為基礎，當你介紹他們的時候至少提供一種當前的定義。

一般上：使用縮寫像是 " don't "，保持名詞最小（少）化，並且在第一次使用他們的時候做解釋。

學術上：在解釋事件的技巧方面，使用 "我們（we）"去取代"我（I）"；除了有名的專家學者以外，否則很少提到任何特定人的名字。

一般上：使用代名詞，而 "你（you）”代表”一般的人（people in general）”，提及特定人的名字，包括在你的主題上運作的當前科學家。

學術上：強調抽象化，像是理論，觀念和數學的形成；將圖表或圖解貼上標籤。

一般上：舉出許多例子，使用簡易的圖表。

學術上：當你需要指出任何的科學家可以達成相同的實驗結果，且其它的學者可以跟隨相同的推論模型的時候，要使用被動的話氣（ex：它已經被証明)；但是也經常使用主動的語氣使你的解釋成為更強而有力和更個人化（ex：Steinberg使用了光學的障礙顯示…)

一般上：避免使用被動的話氣或將焦點放在某個人身上；使用敘述性的形式來解釋科學的實驗。

學術上：簡潔自信地陳述你的觀點；作清楚的斷言及中肯地主張你的意見，提供堅定的論點且抗辯反對的意見。

一般上：承認主題的困難，並用讀者的角度去看待困惑；提供許多解釋和例子；標明爭議之處和註明他們是有趣（exciting）的。


A Note on the Differences between Formal and Informal Style
You'll use both types of style in this course for different assignments, and you'll certainly use both types of writing in the future. Here's a review of specific differences. Use it to keep your style consistent in any one piece, and to make even your academic writing as interesting as possible without losing too much dignity.

ACADEMIC: Spell out words, use technical terms as needed, offering at least a running definition when you introduce them
POPULAR: Use contractions like "don't," keep technical terms to a minimum and make a production of explaining them on first use

ACADEMIC: Avoid using "I," but use "we" in explaining technical matters; rarely mention any specific people by name except famous experts
POPULAR use any pronoun except "you" to indicate "people in general"; refer to many specific people by name, including current scientists working on your topic

ACADEMIC: Emphasize abstractions such as theories, concepts, and mathematical formulations; label any diagrams or charts
POPULAR: Give plenty of examples; use simplified diagrams

ACADEMIC: Use passive voice ("it has been demonstrated") when you need to indicate that any scientist could achieve the same experimental results and any thinker could follow the same reasoning pattern; but also use active voice frequently to make your account more dynamic and personal ("Steinberg used optical barriers to show that...")
POPULAR: Avoid passive voice and focus on people and what they did; use narrative form to explain scientific experimentation

ACADEMIC: State your points succinctly and confidently; make clear assertions and argue them cogently, offering firm support and rebutting opposing points
POPULAR: Acknowledge the difficulty of the subject, show empathy with the reader's likely confusion; give plenty of explanations and examples; note controversies and suggest that they're exciting
 

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URL
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/history.html
主要的資料來源是什麼?
主要資料來源是當你或研究員或參加者選擇學習某一事件或主題時所創造的證明文件。

假設,例如, 你的題目是芝加哥屠宰加工廠工人的經驗，在二十世紀的前十年,你的主要原始資料也許是:
芝加哥報紙多語系,c. 1900-1920,。
一張短膠片,就跟當時的狀況一樣，用來證明當時的工場。解決房子紀錄和原稿。
關於包裝工場的小說,譬如Upton Sinclair's 密林(1906) 。
在1900年到1910年美國鄰近地區居民的人口調查紀錄。
機械傳動機系統, 當時用來移動動物的屍體.
肉類包裝董事的自傳,或是工作者,等,甚至是多年後出版的。
當你在研究時製作的屠宰加工廠的地圖。
當你在研究時所製作或採取的音樂，譬如工作歌曲或藍調。
屠宰加工廠員工口述的歷史經驗, 雖然歷史學者認為那些口述歷史是次要資料來源。

主要來源的媒介可能是任何的事物,包括書面文本,物體,大廈,膠片,繪畫,漫畫, 等。我們用它何時完成而不是它的屬性來區分是否為主要的資料來源。

[部分採用從Peggy Pascoe 俄勒岡大學的網站

What is a Primary Source? A primary source is a document that was created at the time of the event or subject you've chosen to study or by people who were observers of or participants in that event or topic.

If, for example, your topic is the experience of workers in the Chicago packinghouses during the first decades of the twentieth century, your primary sources might be:
Chicago newspapers, c. 1900-1920, in a variety of languages.
A short film, such as an actuality, made during the period that shows the yards. Settlement house records and manuscripts.
Novels about the packing yards, such as Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906).
U.S. census records concerning neighborhood residents for 1900 and 1910.
A mechanical conveyor system, used to move carcasses from one room to another at the time.
Autobiographies of meat packing executives, workers, etc., published even many years later.
Maps that show the location of the packing house plants, made during the period you are studying.
Music, such as work songs or blues ballads, made or adapted during the time you are researching.
Oral histories of packing house employees' experiences, though a historian's comments on those oral histories would be a secondary source.

The medium of the primary source can be anything, including written texts, objects, buildings, films, paintings, cartoons, etc. What makes the source a "primary" source is when it was made, not what it is.
[adapted in part from Peggy Pascoe's site at the University of Oregon]