Johanson's Reading-Writing Fall 2005 BLOG

URL: http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/abstract.html
摘要在一篇文件中佔有重要的地位是因為他們會讓讀者對文件的內容產生初步的概念，好讓讀者決定是否繼續閱讀以及告訴他們在文件中應該找尋些什麼。
有些摘要雖然只列出文件的內容目錄，但是最有用的摘要理應告訴讀者更多有關文件的內容大概。摘要應儘可能提出文件中一些定量和定性的資訊, 並且反映出它的推理。
一般典型來說，一個具有幫助性的摘要應用大約100-250 個字來回應這些問題：
● 為什麼您做了這個研究或計劃?
● 您做了什麼，和如何做?
● 您發現了什麼?
● 您的研究結果意味著什麼意義?
如果文章是有關於新方法或新設備，那最後二個問題應改變為：
● 這些新方法或新設備的好處跟優點是什麼?
● 它們執行的效果有多好?
以下是一些有關摘要的要點且必須牢記在心的:
● 摘要大部分應與標題一起閱讀，因此切記不需重覆或改變標題的意思。這樣您可能不用詳讀其餘的文章部分來了解它的內容，因此，讀者在閱讀過程中應使摘要能足夠地成為文章裡獨立的段落內容。
● 讀者們在閱讀時會希望作者把結論、目的、方法和主要的發現結果作一個簡單的概述。摘要中強調的各種重點應與讀者在文章中得到的重點相稱。
● 不要提到跟文章內容無關的摘要
● 避免使用I 或者 we，但儘可能選擇主動動詞代替被動動詞 (寧可它去測試研究，而不要被研究測試) 。
● 如有可能盡量避免商標名、首字母縮略詞、簡稱或標誌。因為您會需要解釋他們，以致佔用文章的空間。
● 使用文章中的關鍵詞。(因出版工作，摘要為了那些被用來把資料編入索引的文字而被"開發"－如此才有機會讓別人引用你的文章。)

由Margaret Procter協調員博士發表，多倫多大學。版權2005 年。版權所有。
English version
The Abstract
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Abstracts are important because they give a first impression of the document that follows, letting readers decide whether to continue reading and showing them what to look for if they do. Though some abstracts only list the contents of the document, the most useful abstracts tell the reader more. An abstract should represent as much as possible of the quantitative and qualitative information in the document, and also reflect its reasoning. Typically, an informative abstract answers these questions in about 100-250 words:
• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do, and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?
If the paper is about a new method or apparatus the last two questions might be changed to
• What are the advantages (of the method or apparatus)?
• How well does it work?
Here are some other points to keep in mind about abstracts:
• An abstract will nearly always be read along with the title, so do not repeat or rephrase the title. It will likely be read without the rest of the document, however, so make it complete enough to stand on its own.
• Your readers expect you to summarize your conclusions as well as your purpose, methods, and main findings. Emphasize the different points in proportion to the emphasis they receive in the body of the document.
• Do not refer in the abstract to information that is not in the document.
• Avoid using I or we, but choose active verbs instead of passive when possible (the study tested rather than it was tested by the study).
• Avoid if possible avoid trade names, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols. You would need to explain them, and that takes too much room.
• Use key words from the document. (For published work, the abstract is "mined" for the words used to index the material--thus making it more likely someone will cite your article.)
Written by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support, University of Toronto.
Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.
 

Understanding Essay Topics: A Checklist
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Before you plunge into research or writing, think through the specific topic you are dealing with. Remember, you are not being asked just to collect facts, but to develop and display your powers of reasoning. You can save yourself time and frustration by beginning this reasoning early in the process. Here are some steps:
1. Note the key terms, including those naming parts of the topic and those giving directions for dealing with it. Look especially for words that define the kind of reasoning you should be using: why, how, analyse, compare, evaluate, argue, etc. Be sure you understand the specific meanings of these terms.
o Analyse means look behind the surface structure of your source material. See the relationship of parts to whole. Be able to recognize relationships such as cause and effect, even if it's unstated in what you read. Look for underlying assumptions and question their validity. How and why imply an answer reached by analysis.
o Compare means find differences as well as similarities. You will need to formulate the aspects which you are looking at in each item; consider organizing your paper by using these aspects as headings.
o Evaluate stresses applying your judgement to the results of your analysis. It asks for an opinion based on well-defined criteria and clearly stated evidence. Wording such as to what extent also asks for an evaluation of an idea.
o Argue (or agree or disagree) likewise asks you to take a stand based on analysis of solid evidence and explained by clear reasoning. You will need to consider other possible viewpoints and defend your own in comparison.
· Note which concepts or methods the topic asks you to use. Are you to argue a point with others, or to explore your own responses? Does the topic ask you to go into depth about some material already covered? Or does it suggest that you evaluate a theory or model by applying it to an example from outside the course material? Whatever the design, an essay assignment expects you to use course concepts and ways of thinking; it encourages you to break new ground for yourself in applying course methodology.
· To generate ideas from which you can choose the direction of your research or preliminary analysis, ask yourself questions about the specific topic in terms of the concepts or methods that seem applicable. Looking for controversies in the material will also help you find things worth discussing. You may want to look at some general articles in reference works such as encyclopaedias to see how others have framed questions or seen problems to discuss. (For further advice on methods of generating ideas, see Purdue's file on Invention.)
· For an essay of argument, formulate a tentative thesis statement at a fairly early stage--that is, a statement of your own likely position in the controversy that most interests you, or your preliminary answer to an important interpretive question. You do not have to stick to this answer or statement, but it will help focus your investigation. (See Using Thesis Statements for advice on how and when to centre your papers on thesis statements.)
Now you will have some sense of direction--even if you eventually choose another path than the one you have mapped. You are ready to begin gathering and analysing your specific material (see Taking Notes from Research Reading).

Site created by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support,and administered by Jerry Plotnick Site CreditsLast modified July 9, 2005

作文題目的了解:
清單可印的PDF
版本公正使用政策
在您陷入入研究或文字之前, 認為通過您處理的具體題目。記住, 您不請求收集事實, 但發展和顯示您的推理的力量。您能保存自己時間和失望由開始這個推理及早在過程中。這一些步:
1． 注意關鍵術語, 包括那些題目的命名部份和那些給方向為應付它。看特別是為定義這种推理您應該使用的詞: 為什麼, 怎麼, 分析, 比較, 評估, 爭論, 等。請務必您瞭解這些期限的具體意思。
○ 分析手段看在您的參考來源資料之後表面結構。看零件關係整體。能認可關係譬如起因和作用, 既使它是未聲明的在什麼您讀。尋找部下的假定和對他們的有效性表示懷疑。怎麼和為什麼暗示一個答復由分析到達。
○ 比較手段發現區別並且相似性。您將需要公式化您看在各個項目的方面; 考慮組織您的紙由使用這些方面作為標題。
○ 評估重音申請您的評斷嚮您的分析的結果。它請求觀點根據明確定義的標準和清楚地陳述的證據。字詞譬如在何種程度上並且請求想法的評估。
○ 爭論(或同意或不同意) 同樣要求您採取立場根據對堅實證據的分析和由清楚的推理解釋。您將需要考慮其它可能的觀點和保衛您自己在比較。
● 　注意哪個概念或方法題目要求您使用。您是與其他人爭論點, 或探索您自己的反應嗎? 題目要求您進入深度關於一些材料已經報道嗎? 或它建議, 您評估理論或模型由應用它嚮例子從路線材料外面? 什麼設計, 雜文任務盼望您使用路線概念和思維方式; 它鼓勵您打破新基地為你自己在申請路線方法學。
● 　引起您能選擇您的研究或初步分析的方向的想法, 詢問自己問題具體題目根據似乎可適用的概念或方法。尋找爭論在材料並且將幫助您發現事值得談論。您可以想要看一些一般文章在參考書譬如百科全書看怎麼其他人構築問題或看問題談論。(為進一步忠告在引起想法方法, 參見Purdue 的文件在發明。) ●　為論據雜文, 公式化一個試探性論文聲明在一個相當早階段-- 那是聲明您自己可能的位置在爭論多數興趣您, 或您的初步答復對一個重要解釋性問題。您不必須黏附對這個答復或聲明, 但是它將幫助聚焦您的調查。(參見使用論文聲明為忠告怎樣並且何時集中您的資料在論文聲明。) 現在您將有一些方向感-- 既使您比那個您映射了最終選擇其它道路。您準備好開始會集和分析您的具體材料(參見採取筆記從研究讀書) 。選址由Margaret Procter, 協調員博士創造, 寫支持, 和由傑瑞・Plotnick 站點Credits 最後更新2005 年7月9 日執行

B9308028 HELEN
 

書或文章的一個分析或評論不是主要總結;相反,它評論和評估工作根據具體問題和理論關心在路線。(幫助削尖您的分析讀書技能,參見我們的文件在重要讀書。) 文學回顧彙集一套的這樣評論對地圖在位置之外的當前的範圍在題目; 然後作家能定義他們自己的位置在本文的剩餘。保留問題像這些在頭腦如同您讀,做筆記,和寫回顧。
1.什麼是書或文章的具體題目?它似乎什麼整體目的有?為什麼讀者它被寫?(序言、承認、參考書目和索引可能是有用的在回答這些問題。不要俯視關於作者的背景的事實和書的創作和出版物的情況。)
2.作者陳述一份明確論文嗎?他或她引人注目地有一個軸研嗎?什麼是理論假定?他們明確地被談論嗎?(再,尋找聲明在序言,等和跟隨他們在工作的剩餘。)
3.工作對您的路線整體題目確切地貢獻什麼?什麼一般問題和與概念嚙合在您的學科和路線它?
4.工作提出什麼樣的材料(即主要文件或次要物質,文藝分析、個人觀察,定量資料,自傳或歷史帳戶)?
5.這材料怎麼被使用展示和爭論論文?(並且表明工作的整體結構,您的回顧能引述或總結具體段落顯示作者的介紹的特徵,包括寫作風格和口氣。)
6.有是供選擇的方式爭論從同樣材料嗎?作者顯示了悟他們嗎?在什麼方面作者同意或不同意?
7.為進一步討論工作提出什麼理論問題和題目?
8.什麼是您自己的反應和被考慮的看法看待工作?
瀏覽在出版博學書評得到方式回顧作用的感覺在智力演講。看學報在您的學科或一般出版物裡譬如多倫多大學季度,書倫敦回顧,或書紐約回顧。
一些回顧總結書的內容和然後評估它;其他人集成這些作用,評論書和使用總結只給出例子。選擇似乎最適當根據您的教授的方向的方法。
保留您的焦點,提醒自己,您的任務主要將談論它的題目的書的治療,不是題目。您的關鍵句子應該因此認為"這本書展示... 作者爭論" 而不是"這發生了... 這是實際情形。"

由Margaret Procter,協調員博士寫,寫支持,多倫多大學。
版權2005 年。版權所有。
An analytic or critical review of a book or article is not primarily a summary; rather, it comments on and evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course. (To help sharpen your analytical reading skills, see our file on Critical Reading.) The literature review puts together a set of such commentaries to map out the current range of positions on a topic; then the writer can define his or her own position in the rest of the paper. Keep questions like these in mind as you read, make notes, and write the review.
1. What is the specific topic of the book or article? What overall purpose does it seem to have? For what readership is it written? (The preface, acknowledgements, bibliography and index can be helpful in answering these questions. Don't overlook facts about the author's background and the circumstances of the book's creation and publication.)
2. Does the author state an explicit thesis? Does he or she noticeably have an axe to grind? What are the theoretical assumptions? Are they discussed explicitly? (Again, look for statements in the preface, etc. and follow them up in the rest of the work.)
3. What exactly does the work contribute to the overall topic of your course? What general problems and concepts in your discipline and course does it engage with?
4. What kinds of material does the work present (e.g. primary documents or secondary material, literary analysis, personal observation, quantitative data, biographical or historical accounts)?
5. How is this material used to demonstrate and argue the thesis? (As well as indicating the overall structure of the work, your review could quote or summarize specific passages to show the characteristics of the author's presentation, including writing style and tone.)
6. Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material? Does the author show awareness of them? In what respects does the author agree or disagree?
7. What theoretical issues and topics for further discussion does the work raise?
8. What are your own reactions and considered opinions regarding the work?
Browse in published scholarly book reviews to get a sense of the ways reviews function in intellectual discourse. Look at journals in your discipline or general publications such as University of Toronto Quarterly, London Review of Books, or New York Review of Books.
Some reviews summarize the book's content and then evaluate it; others integrate these functions, commenting on the book and using summary only to give examples. Choose the method that seems most suitable according to your professor's directions.
To keep your focus, remind yourself that your assignment is primarily to discuss the book's treatment of its topic, not the topic itself. Your key sentences should therefore say "This book shows...the author argues" rather than "This happened...this is the case."

Written by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support, University of Toronto.
Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.
 

URL:
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/bkrev.html
書或文章的一個分析或評論不是主要總結; 相反, 它評論和評估工作根據具體問題和理論關心在路線。(幫助削尖您的分析讀書技能, 參見我們的文件在重要讀書。)文學回顧彙集一套的這樣評論對地圖在位置之外的當前的範圍在題目; 然後作家能定義他們自己的位置在本文的剩餘。保留問題像這些在頭腦如同您讀, 做筆記, 和寫回顧。
1. 什麼是書或文章的具體題目? 它似乎什麼整體目的有? 為什麼讀者它被寫? (序言、承認、參考書目和索引可能是有用的在回答這些問題。不要俯視關於作者的背景的事實和書的創作和出版物的情況。)
2. 作者陳述一份明確論文嗎? 他或她引人注目地有一個軸研嗎? 什麼是理論假定? 他們明確地被談論嗎? (再, 尋找聲明在序言, 等和跟隨他們在工作的剩餘。)
3. 工作對您的路線整體題目確切地貢獻什麼? 什麼一般問題和與概念嚙合在您的學科和路線它?
4. 工作提出什麼樣的材料(即主要文件或次要物質, 文藝分析、個人觀察, 定量資料, 自傳或歷史帳戶)?
5. 這材料怎麼被使用展示和爭論論文? (並且表明工作的整體結構, 您的回顧能引述或總結具體段落顯示作者的介紹的特徵, 包括寫作風格和口氣。)
6. 有是供選擇的方式爭論從同樣材料嗎? 作者顯示了悟他們嗎? 在什麼方面作者同意或不同意?
7. 為進一步討論工作提出什麼理論問題和題目?
8. 什麼是您自己的反應和被考慮的看法看待工作?
瀏覽在出版博學書評得到方式回顧作用的感覺在智力演講。看學報在您的學科或一般出版物裡譬如 多倫多大學季度, 書倫敦回顧, 或 書紐約回顧。
一些回顧總結書的內容和然後評估它; 其他人集成這些作用, 評論書和使用總結只給出例子。選擇似乎最適當根據您的教授的方向的方法。
保留您的焦點, 提醒自己, 您的任務主要將談論它的題目的書的治療, 不是題目。您的關鍵句子應該因此認為"這本書展示... 作者爭論" 而不是"這發生了... 這是實際情形。"

由Margaret Procter, 協調員博士寫, 寫支持, 多倫多大學。
版權2005 年。版權所有。
An analytic or critical review of a book or article is not primarily a summary; rather, it comments on and evaluates the work in the light of specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course. (To help sharpen your analytical reading skills, see our file on Critical Reading.) The literature review puts together a set of such commentaries to map out the current range of positions on a topic; then the writer can define his or her own position in the rest of the paper. Keep questions like these in mind as you read, make notes, and write the review.
1. What is the specific topic of the book or article? What overall purpose does it seem to have? For what readership is it written? (The preface, acknowledgements, bibliography and index can be helpful in answering these questions. Don't overlook facts about the author's background and the circumstances of the book's creation and publication.)
2. Does the author state an explicit thesis? Does he or she noticeably have an axe to grind? What are the theoretical assumptions? Are they discussed explicitly? (Again, look for statements in the preface, etc. and follow them up in the rest of the work.)
3. What exactly does the work contribute to the overall topic of your course? What general problems and concepts in your discipline and course does it engage with?
4. What kinds of material does the work present (e.g. primary documents or secondary material, literary analysis, personal observation, quantitative data, biographical or historical accounts)?
5. How is this material used to demonstrate and argue the thesis? (As well as indicating the overall structure of the work, your review could quote or summarize specific passages to show the characteristics of the author's presentation, including writing style and tone.)
6. Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material? Does the author show awareness of them? In what respects does the author agree or disagree?
7. What theoretical issues and topics for further discussion does the work raise?
8. What are your own reactions and considered opinions regarding the work?
Browse in published scholarly book reviews to get a sense of the ways reviews function in intellectual discourse. Look at journals in your discipline or general publications such as University of Toronto Quarterly, London Review of Books, or New York Review of Books.
Some reviews summarize the book's content and then evaluate it; others integrate these functions, commenting on the book and using summary only to give examples. Choose the method that seems most suitable according to your professor's directions.
To keep your focus, remind yourself that your assignment is primarily to discuss the book's treatment of its topic, not the topic itself. Your key sentences should therefore say "This book shows...the author argues" rather than "This happened...this is the case."

Written by Dr. Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support, University of Toronto.
Copyright 2005. All rights reserved.